public struct Maybe<T> : IEquatable<Maybe<T>>
        where T : class
    {
        private readonly T _value;

        private Maybe(T value)
        {
            _value = value;
        }

        public bool HasValue => _value != null;
        public T Value => _value ?? throw new InvalidOperationException();
        public static Maybe<T> None => new Maybe<T>();


        public static implicit operator Maybe<T>(T value)
        {
            return new Maybe<T>(value);
        }

        public static bool operator ==(Maybe<T> maybe, T value)
        {
            return maybe.HasValue && maybe.Value.Equals(value);
        }

        public static bool operator !=(Maybe<T> maybe, T value)
        {
            return !(maybe == value);
        }

        public static bool operator ==(Maybe<T> left, Maybe<T> right)
        {
            return left.Equals(right);
        }

        public static bool operator !=(Maybe<T> left, Maybe<T> right)
        {
            return !(left == right);
        }

        /// <inheritdoc />
        /// <summary>
        ///     Avoid boxing and Give type safety
        /// </summary>
        /// <param name="other"></param>
        /// <returns></returns>
        public bool Equals(Maybe<T> other)
        {
            if (!HasValue && !other.HasValue)
                return true;

            if (!HasValue || !other.HasValue)
                return false;

            return _value.Equals(other.Value);
        }

        /// <summary>
        ///     Avoid reflection
        /// </summary>
        /// <param name="obj"></param>
        /// <returns></returns>
        public override bool Equals(object obj)
        {
            if (obj is T typed)
            {
                obj = new Maybe<T>(typed);
            }

            if (!(obj is Maybe<T> other)) return false;

            return Equals(other);
        }

        /// <summary>
        ///     Good practice when overriding Equals method.
        ///     If x.Equals(y) then we must have x.GetHashCode()==y.GetHashCode()
        /// </summary>
        /// <returns></returns>
        public override int GetHashCode()
        {
            return HasValue ? _value.GetHashCode() : 0;
        }

        public override string ToString()
        {
            return HasValue ? _value.ToString() : "NO VALUE";
        }
    }

var store = GetStore();
string postCode = null;
if (store != null && store.Address != null && store.Address.PostCode != null)
     postCode = store.Address.PostCode.ToString();

• این متد فقط با انواع ارجاعی (reference types)  کار می‌کند و می‌بایست برای کار با انواع مقداری (value types) اصلاح شود.
  
• با انواع داده ای مثل string چه باید کرد؟ در مورد این نوع داده‌ها تنها مطمئن شدن از null نبودن کافی نیست. برای مثال در مورد string ، گاهی اوقات ما می‌خواهیم از خالی نبودن آن نیز مطمئن شویم. و یا در مورد collection‌ها تنها null نبودن کافی نیست بلکه زمانی که نیاز به محاسبه مجموع و یا یافتن بزرگترین عضو است، باید از خالی نبودن مجموعه و وجود حداقل یک عضو در آن مطمئن باشیم.
  

namespace sample_22_backend.Models
{
    public class Post
    {
        public int Id { set; get; }
        public string Title { set; get; }
        public string Body { set; get; }

        public int UserId { set; get; }
    }
}

using System;
using System.Collections.Generic;
using System.Linq;
using sample_22_backend.Models;

namespace sample_22_backend.Services
{
    public interface IPostsDataSource
    {
        List<Post> GetAllPosts();
        bool DeletePost(int id);
        Post AddPost(Post post);
        bool UpdatePost(int id, Post post);
        Post GetPost(int id);
    }

    /// <summary>
    /// هدف صرفا تهیه یک منبع داده آزمایشی ساده تشکیل شده در حافظه است
    /// </summary>
    public class PostsDataSource : IPostsDataSource
    {
        private readonly List<Post> _allPosts;

        public PostsDataSource()
        {
            _allPosts = createDataSource();
        }

        public List<Post> GetAllPosts()
        {
            return _allPosts;
        }

        public Post GetPost(int id)
        {
            return _allPosts.Find(x => x.Id == id);
        }

        public bool DeletePost(int id)
        {
            var item = _allPosts.Find(x => x.Id == id);
            if (item == null)
            {
                return false;
            }

            _allPosts.Remove(item);
            return true;
        }

        public Post AddPost(Post post)
        {
            var id = 1;
            var lastItem = _allPosts.LastOrDefault();
            if (lastItem != null)
            {
                id = lastItem.Id + 1;
            }

            post.Id = id;
            _allPosts.Add(post);
            return post;
        }

        public bool UpdatePost(int id, Post post)
        {
            var item = _allPosts
                .Select((pst, index) => new { Item = pst, Index = index })
                .FirstOrDefault(x => x.Item.Id == id);
            if (item == null || id != post.Id)
            {
                return false;
            }

            _allPosts[item.Index] = post;
            return true;
        }

        private static List<Post> createDataSource()
        {
            var list = new List<Post>();
            var rnd = new Random();
            for (var i = 1; i < 10; i++)
            {
                list.Add(new Post { Id = i, UserId = rnd.Next(1, 1000), Title = $"Title {i} ...", Body = $"Body {i} ..." });
            }
            return list;
        }
    }
}

using System.Collections.Generic;
using Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc;
using sample_22_backend.Models;
using sample_22_backend.Services;

namespace sample_22_backend.Controllers
{
    [ApiController]
    [Route("api/[controller]")]
    public class PostsController : ControllerBase
    {
        private readonly IPostsDataSource _postsDataSource;

        public PostsController(IPostsDataSource postsDataSource)
        {
            _postsDataSource = postsDataSource;
        }

        [HttpGet]
        public ActionResult<List<Post>> GetPosts()
        {
            return _postsDataSource.GetAllPosts();
        }

        [HttpGet("{id}")]
        public ActionResult<Post> GetPost(int id)
        {
            var post = _postsDataSource.GetPost(id);
            if (post == null)
            {
                return NotFound();
            }
            return Ok(post);
        }

        [HttpDelete("{id}")]
        public ActionResult DeletePost(int id)
        {
            var deleted = _postsDataSource.DeletePost(id);
            if (deleted)
            {
                return Ok();
            }
            return NotFound();
        }

        [HttpPost]
        public ActionResult<Post> CreatePost([FromBody]Post post)
        {
            post = _postsDataSource.AddPost(post);
            return CreatedAtRoute(nameof(GetPost), new { post.Id }, post);
        }

        [HttpPut("{id}")]
        public ActionResult<Post> UpdatePost(int id, [FromBody]Post post)
        {
            var updated = _postsDataSource.UpdatePost(id, post);
            if (updated)
            {
                return Ok(post);
            }
            return NotFound();
        }
    }
}

> create-react-app sample-22-frontend
> cd sample-22-frontend
> npm start

> npm install --save bootstrap

import "bootstrap/dist/css/bootstrap.css";

import "./App.css";

import React, { Component } from "react";

class App extends Component {
  state = {
    posts: []
  };

  handleAdd = () => {
    console.log("Add");
  };

  handleUpdate = post => {
    console.log("Update", post);
  };

  handleDelete = post => {
    console.log("Delete", post);
  };

  render() {
    return (
      <React.Fragment>
        <button className="btn btn-primary mt-1 mb-1" onClick={this.handleAdd}>
          Add
        </button>
        <table className="table">
          <thead>
            <tr>
              <th>Title</th>
              <th>Update</th>
              <th>Delete</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody>
            {this.state.posts.map(post => (
              <tr key={post.id}>
                <td>{post.title}</td>
                <td>
                  <button
                    className="btn btn-info btn-sm"
                    onClick={() => this.handleUpdate(post)}
                  >
                    Update
                  </button>
                </td>
                <td>
                  <button
                    className="btn btn-danger btn-sm"
                    onClick={() => this.handleDelete(post)}
                  >
                    Delete
                  </button>
                </td>
              </tr>
            ))}
          </tbody>
        </table>
      </React.Fragment>
    );
  }
}

export default App;

> npm install --save axios

using System.Collections.Generic;

namespace TestRouting.Models
{
    public class Issue
    {
        public int IssueId { set; get; }
        public int ProjectId { set; get; }
        public string Title { set; get; }
        public string Body { set; get; }
    }

    public static class IssuesDataSource
    {
        public static IList<Issue> CreateDataSource()
        {
            var results = new List<Issue>();
            for (int i = 0; i < 100; i++)
            {
                results.Add(new Issue { IssueId = i, ProjectId = i, Body = "Test...", Title = "Title " + i });
            }
            return results;
        }
    }
}

using System.Linq;
using System.Web.Mvc;
using TestRouting.Models;

namespace TestRouting.Controllers
{
    public class HomeController : Controller
    {
        public ActionResult Index()
        {
            var issuesList = IssuesDataSource.CreateDataSource();
            return View(issuesList); //show the list
        }

        public ActionResult Details(int issueId, int projectId)
        {
            var issue = IssuesDataSource.CreateDataSource()
                                        .Where(x => x.IssueId == issueId && x.ProjectId == projectId)
                                        .FirstOrDefault();
            return View(issue);
        }
    }
}

@model IEnumerable<TestRouting.Models.Issue>
@{
    ViewBag.Title = "Index";
}
<h2>
    Issues</h2>
<ul>
    @foreach (var item in Model)
    {
   
        <li>
            @Html.ActionLink(linkText: item.Title,
                     actionName: "Details",
                     controllerName: "Home",
                     routeValues: new { issueId = item.IssueId, projectId = item.ProjectId },
                     htmlAttributes: null)
        </li>
    }
</ul>

 http://localhost:1036/Home/Details?issueId=0&projectId=0

 http://localhost:1036/Home/Details/0/0

using System.Web.Mvc;
using System.Web.Routing;

namespace TestRouting
{
    public class RouteConfig
    {
        public static void RegisterRoutes(RouteCollection routes)
        {
            routes.IgnoreRoute("{resource}.axd/{*pathInfo}");

            routes.MapRoute(
                name: "IssueDetails",
                url: "Details/{issueId}/{projectId}", //تطابق با یک چنین مسیرهایی
                defaults: new 
                          { 
                                controller = "Home", //کنترلری که این نوع مسیرها را پردازش خواهد کرد
                                action = "Details", // اکشن متدی که نهایتا پارامترها را دریافت می‌کند
                                issueId = UrlParameter.Optional, //این خواص نیاز است هم نام پارامترهای اکشن متد تعریف شوند
                                projectId = UrlParameter.Optional
                          }
            );

            routes.MapRoute(
                name: "Default",
                url: "{controller}/{action}/{id}",
                defaults: new { controller = "Home", action = "Index", id = UrlParameter.Optional }
            );
        }
    }
}

 http://localhost:1036/Home/Details/0/0

   public class Book
    {
        public int Id { get; set; }

        public string Title { get; set; }

        public string ISBN { get; set; }
    }

public interface IBookRepository
    {
        IList<Book> GetBooks();
    }

 [Export( typeof( IBookRepository ) )]
    public class BookRepository
    {
        public IList<Book> GetBooks()
        {
            List<Book> listOfBooks = new List<Book>( 3 );
            listOfBooks.AddRange( new Book[] 
            {
                new Book(){Id=1 , Title="Book1"},
                new Book(){Id=2 , Title="Book2"},
                new Book(){Id=3 , Title="Book3"},
            } );
            return listOfBooks;
        }
    }

 [Export]
    [PartCreationPolicy( CreationPolicy.NonShared )]
    public class BookController : Controller
    {
        [Import( typeof( IBookRepository ) )]        
        BookRepository bookRepository;

        public BookController()
        {
        }

        public ActionResult Index()
        {
            return View( this.bookRepository.GetBooks() );
        }        
    }

public class MEFControllerFactory : DefaultControllerFactory
    {
        private readonly CompositionContainer _compositionContainer;

        public MEFControllerFactory( CompositionContainer compositionContainer )
        {
            _compositionContainer = compositionContainer;
        }

        protected override IController GetControllerInstance( RequestContext requestContext, Type controllerType )
        {
            var export = _compositionContainer.GetExports( controllerType, null, null ).SingleOrDefault();

            IController result;

            if ( export != null )
            {
                result = export.Value as IController;
            }
            else
            {
                result = base.GetControllerInstance( requestContext, controllerType );
                _compositionContainer.ComposeParts( result );
            } 
        }
    }

public class MefDependencyResolver : IDependencyResolver
    {
        private readonly CompositionContainer _container;

        public MefDependencyResolver( CompositionContainer container )
        {
            _container = container;
        }

        public IDependencyScope BeginScope()
        {
            return this;
        }

        public object GetService( Type serviceType )
        {
            var export = _container.GetExports( serviceType, null, null ).SingleOrDefault();

            return null != export ? export.Value : null;
        }

        public IEnumerable<object> GetServices( Type serviceType )
        {
            var exports = _container.GetExports( serviceType, null, null );
            var createdObjects = new List<object>();

            if ( exports.Any() )
            {
                foreach ( var export in exports )
                {
                    createdObjects.Add( export.Value );
                }
            }

            return createdObjects;
        }

        public void Dispose()
        {
          
        }
    }

public class Plugin
    {
        public void Setup()
        {           
            var container = new CompositionContainer( new DirectoryCatalog( HostingEnvironment.MapPath( "~/bin" ) ) );

            CompositionBatch batch = new CompositionBatch();

            batch.AddPart( this );

            ControllerBuilder.Current.SetControllerFactory( new MEFControllerFactory( container ) );
            
            System.Web.Http.GlobalConfiguration.Configuration.DependencyResolver = new MefDependencyResolver( container );

            container.Compose( batch );
        }
    }

var container = new CompositionContainer( new AssemblyCatalog( Assembly.GetExecutingAssembly() ) );

ControllerBuilder.Current.SetControllerFactory( new MEFControllerFactory( container ) );

System.Web.Http.GlobalConfiguration.Configuration.DependencyResolver = new MefDependencyResolver( container );

protected void Application_Start()
        {
            Plugin myPlugin = new Plugin();
            myPlugin.Setup();

            AreaRegistration.RegisterAllAreas();
            
            RegisterRoutes( RouteTable.Routes );
        }

        public static void RegisterRoutes( RouteCollection routes )
        {
            routes.IgnoreRoute( "{resource}.axd/{*pathInfo}" );        

            routes.MapRoute(
                "Default", // Route name
                "{controller}/{action}/{id}", // URL with parameters
                new { controller = "Book", action = "Index", id = UrlParameter.Optional } // Parameter defaults
            );          
        }