<Project Sdk="Microsoft.NET.Sdk">
  <PropertyGroup>
    <OutputType>Exe</OutputType>
    <TargetFramework>netcoreapp3.0</TargetFramework>
    <LangVersion>8.0</LangVersion>
    <NullableContextOptions>enable</NullableContextOptions>
  </PropertyGroup>
</Project>

CS8632: The annotation for nullable reference types should only be used in code within a ‘#nullable’ context.
CS8627: A nullable type parameter must be known to be a value-type or non-nullable reference type. Consider adding a ‘class’, ‘struct’ or type constraint.

<PropertyGroup>
  <LangVersion>preview</LangVersion>
  <Nullable>enable</Nullable>
</PropertyGroup>

    public class Person
    {
        public string FirstName { get; set; }

        public string MiddleName { get; set; }

        public string LastName { get; set; }

        public Person(string first, string last) =>
            (FirstName, LastName) = (first, last);

        public Person(string first, string middle, string last) =>
            (FirstName, MiddleName, LastName) = (first, middle, last);

        public override string ToString() => $"{FirstName} {MiddleName} {LastName}";
    }

public string? MiddleName { get; set; }

    public static class NullableReferenceTypes
    {
        //#nullable enable // Toggle to enable

        public static string Exemplify()
        {
            var vahid = new Person("Vahid", "N");
            var length = GetLengthOfMiddleName(vahid);

            return $"{vahid.FirstName}'s middle name has {length} characters in it.";

            static int GetLengthOfMiddleName(Person person)
            {
                string middleName = person.MiddleName;
                return middleName.Length;
            }
        }
    }

var middleName = person.MiddleName;

static int GetLengthOfMiddleName(Person person)
{
   var middleName = person.MiddleName;
   return middleName?.Length ?? 0;
}

public static class NullableReferenceTypes
{
#nullable disable // Toggle to enable

<Project Sdk="Microsoft.NET.Sdk">
  <PropertyGroup>
    <OutputType>Exe</OutputType>
    <TargetFramework>netcoreapp3.0</TargetFramework>
    <LangVersion>8.0</LangVersion>
    <NullableContextOptions>enable</NullableContextOptions>
    <TreatWarningsAsErrors>true</TreatWarningsAsErrors>
  </PropertyGroup>
</Project>

<WarningsAsErrors>CS8600;CS8602;CS8603</WarningsAsErrors>

string name = null; // ERROR
string? name = null; // OK!

public class Person
{
    public Address? Address { get; set; };
    public string Country => Address?.Country;   // ERROR! 
}

public class Person
{
    public Address? Address { get; set; };
    public string? Country => Address?.Country;  // OK!
}

var node = this; // Initialize non-nullable variable
while (node != null)
{
   node = null; // ERROR!
}

Node? node = this;   // Initialize nullable variable
while (node != null) {
   node = null; // OK!
}

public class Person
{
   public string Name { get; set; } // ERROR!
}

public class Person
{
   public string? Name { get; set; }
}

public class Person
{
    public string Name { get; set; }
    public Person(string name) {
        Name = name ?? throw new ArgumentNullException(nameof(name));
    }
}
 

public class Person
{
   public string Name { get; set; } = string.Empty;
   // -or-
   public string Name { get; set; } = "";
}

String.Empty
Array.Empty<T>()
Enumerable.Empty<T>()

public class Person
{
   public Address Address { get; set; } = new Address();
}

namespace CS8Tests;

public class InterceptorsSample
{
    public string GetText(string text)
    {
        return $"{text}, World!";
    }
}

namespace System.Runtime.CompilerServices;

[AttributeUsage(AttributeTargets.Method, AllowMultiple = true, Inherited = false)]
public sealed class InterceptsLocationAttribute : Attribute
{
    public InterceptsLocationAttribute(string filePath, int line, int character)
    {
    }
}

using CS8Tests;

var example = new InterceptorsSample();
var text = example.GetText("Hello");
Console.WriteLine(text); //Hello, World!

using System.Runtime.CompilerServices;

namespace CS8Tests;

public static class MyInterceptor
{
    [InterceptsLocation("C:\\Path\\To\\CS8Tests\\Program.cs", 4, 20)] 
    public static string InterceptorMethod(this InterceptorsSample example, string text)
    {
        return $"{text}, DNT!";
    }
}

 error CS9137: The 'interceptors' experimental feature is not enabled in this namespace. Add
'<InterceptorsPreviewNamespaces>$(InterceptorsPreviewNamespaces);CS8Tests</InterceptorsPreviewNamespaces>'
to your project.

<Project Sdk="Microsoft.NET.Sdk">
  <PropertyGroup>
    <OutputType>Exe</OutputType>
    <TargetFramework>net8.0</TargetFramework>
    <ImplicitUsings>enable</ImplicitUsings>
    <Nullable>enable</Nullable>
    <!--<NoWarn>Test001</NoWarn>-->
    <InterceptorsPreviewNamespaces>$(InterceptorsPreviewNamespaces);CS8Tests</InterceptorsPreviewNamespaces>
  </PropertyGroup>
</Project>

Hello, DNT!

using CS8Tests;
using System;
using System.Runtime.CompilerServices;

[CompilerGenerated]
internal class Program
{
  private static void <Main>$(string[] args)
  {
    Console.WriteLine(new InterceptorsSample().InterceptorMethod("Hello"));
  }

  public Program()
  {
    base..ctor();
  }
}

app.MapGet("/products", handler: (int? page, int? pageLength, MyDb db) => { ... })

public class User
    {
        public int Id { get; set; }
        public string Name { get; set; }
    }

public class UserService : IUserService
    {
        private IList<User> _userData;

        public UserService()
        {
            _userData = new List<User>
            {
                new User {Id = 1,Name = "ali"},
                new User {Id = 2,Name = "Karim"}
            };
        }

        public User GetById(int id)
        {
            return _userData.FirstOrDefault(x => x.Id == id);
        }
    }  

public class UserController : Controller
    {
        private readonly IUserService _userService;

        public UserController(IUserService  userService)
        {
            _userService = userService;
        }
        public ActionResult Details(int id)
        {
            var user=_userService.GetById(3); // این متد ممکن است مقداری برگرداند و یا مقدار نال برگرداند                           
            if( user == null)
                 return HttpNotFound();    
            return View(user);  
        }
    }

 public ActionResult Details(int id)
        {
            var user = _userService
                            .GetById(3)
                            .DefaultIfEmpty(new User())
                            .Single();
            return View(user);
        }

public class Option<T> : IEnumerable<T>
    {
        private readonly T[] _data;

        private Option(T[] data)
        {
            _data = data;
        }

        public static Option<T> Create(T element) => new Option<T>(new[] { element });

        public static Option<T> CreateEmpty() => new Option<T>(new T[0]);

        public IEnumerator<T> GetEnumerator() => ((IEnumerable<T>) _data).GetEnumerator();

        IEnumerator IEnumerable.GetEnumerator() => this.GetEnumerator();
    }

 public class UserService : IUserService
    {
       ...
       ...
       public Option<User> GetById(int id)
        {
            var user = _userData.FirstOrDefault(x => x.Id == id);
            return user == null ? Option<User>.CreateEmpty() : Option<User>.Create(user);
        }
    }

 public class UserController : Controller
    {
       ...
       ...
       public ActionResult Details(int id)
        {
            var user = _userService
                            .GetById(3)
                            .DefaultIfEmpty(new User())
                            .Single();
            return View(user);
        }
    }

explore what's new in C# 8, as well as what we can expect in the near (and far) future of C#!
We'll talk about:
- News in C# 8
- Pattern Matching (incl. Record Types)
- Nullable Reference Types and How to Avoid Null Reference Exceptions
- How Async & Await is Improving

A .NET guideline specifies that an application should never throw a NullReferenceException. However, many applications and libraries do. The NullReferenceException is the most common exception happening. That’s why C# 8 tries to get rid of it. With C# 8, reference types are not null be default. This is a big change, and a great feature. However, what about all the legacy code? Can old libraries be used with C# 8 applications, and can C# 7 applications make use of C# 8 libraries?

This article demonstrates how C# 8 allows mixing old and new assemblies. 

    class Program
    {
        static void UsingOld()
        {
            using (var file = new FileStream("input.txt", FileMode.Open))
            using (var reader = new StreamReader(file))
            {
                var s = reader.ReadToEnd();

                // Do something with data
            }
        }

    class Program
    {
        static void UsingNew(string[] args)
        {
            using Stream file = new FileStream("input.txt", FileMode.Open);
            using StreamReader reader = new StreamReader(file);

            var s = reader.ReadToEnd();

            // Do something with data
        }

    class Program
    {
        static void UsingNewScope()
        {
            string buffer = null;
            using Stream file = new FileStream("input.txt", FileMode.Open);
            using StreamReader reader = new StreamReader(file);

            buffer = reader.ReadToEnd();

            // Do something with data

            buffer = null;
        }

        static void UsingOldScope(string[] args)
        {
            string buffer = null;

            using (var file = new FileStream("input.txt", FileMode.Open))
            using (var reader = new StreamReader(file))
            {
                buffer = reader.ReadToEnd();
            }

            // Do something with data

            buffer = null;
        }

    string buffer = null; 
    using (var file = new FileStream("input.txt", FileMode.Open)) 
    { 
        using (var reader = new StreamReader(file)) 
        { 
            buffer = reader.ReadToEnd(); 
            buffer = null; 
        } 
    }

private static void UsingDeclarationWithScope()
{
    {
        using var r1 = new AResource();
        r1.UseIt();
    }  // r1 is disposed here!
    Console.WriteLine("r1 is already disposed");
}

    public class AResource : IDisposable
    {
        public void UseIt() => Console.WriteLine(nameof(UseIt));
        public void Dispose() => Console.WriteLine($"Dispose {nameof(AResource)}");
    }

    class Program
    {
        public static AResource GetTheResource() => new AResource();

using (GetTheResource())
{
   // do something here
}  // resource is disposed here

using GetTheResource(); // Compiler error

using var _ = GetTheResource(); // Works fine

اگر مطالب پیش نیاز را مطالعه کنید، قطعا روش مطرح شده را انتخاب نخواهید کرد؛ به همین دلیل به دنبال راه حل صحیح برخورد با این سناریوها بودم که نتیجه آن را در ادامه خواهیم دید.

راه حل صحیح برای برخورد با این سناریوها بازگشت یک Result می‌باشد که در مطلب قبلی هم تحت عنوان OperationResult مطرح شد. 

    public class Result
    {
        private static readonly Result SuccessResult = new Result(true, null);

        protected Result(bool succeeded, string message)
        {
            if (succeeded)
            {
                if (message != null)
                    throw new ArgumentException("There should be no error message for success.", nameof(message));
            }
            else
            {
                if (message == null)
                    throw new ArgumentNullException(nameof(message), "There must be error message for failure.");
            }

            Succeeded = succeeded;
            Error = message;
        }

        public bool Succeeded { get; }
        public string Error { get; }

        [DebuggerStepThrough]
        public static Result Success()
        {
            return SuccessResult;
        }

        [DebuggerStepThrough]
        public static Result Failed(string message)
        {
            return new Result(false, message);
        }

        [DebuggerStepThrough]
        public static Result<T> Failed<T>(string message)
        {
            return new Result<T>(default, false, message);
        }

        [DebuggerStepThrough]
        public static Result<T> Success<T>(T value)
        {
            return new Result<T>(value, true, string.Empty);
        }

        [DebuggerStepThrough]
        public static Result Combine(string seperator, params Result[] results)
        {
            var failedResults = results.Where(x => !x.Succeeded).ToList();

            if (!failedResults.Any())
                return Success();

            var error = string.Join(seperator, failedResults.Select(x => x.Error).ToArray());
            return Failed(error);
        }

        [DebuggerStepThrough]
        public static Result Combine(params Result[] results)
        {
            return Combine(", ", results);
        }

        [DebuggerStepThrough]
        public static Result Combine<T>(params Result<T>[] results)
        {
            return Combine(", ", results);
        }

        [DebuggerStepThrough]
        public static Result Combine<T>(string seperator, params Result<T>[] results)
        {
            var untyped = results.Select(result => (Result) result).ToArray();
            return Combine(seperator, untyped);
        }

        public override string ToString()
        {
            return Succeeded
                ? "Succeeded"
                : $"Failed : {Error}";
        }
    }

مشابه کلاس بالا، در فریمورک ASP.NET Identity کلاسی تحت عنوان IdentityResult برای همین منظور در نظر گرفته شده‌است.

پراپرتی Succeeded نشان دهنده موفقت آمیز بودن یا عدم موفقیت عملیات (به عنوان مثال یک متد ApplicationService) می‌باشد. پراپرتی Error دربرگیرنده پیغام خطایی می‌باشد که قبلا از طریق Message مربوط به یک استثناء صادر شده، در اختیار بالاترین لایه قرار می‌گرفت. با استفاده از متد Combine، امکان ترکیب چندین Result حاصل از عملیات مختلف را خواهید داشت. متدهای استاتیک Failed و Success هم برای درگیر نشدن برای وهله سازی از کلاس Result در نظر گرفته شده‌اند.

متد GetForEdit مربوط به MeetingService را در نظر بگیرید. به عنوان مثال وظیفه این متد بازگشت یک MeetingEditModel می‌باشد؛ اما با توجه به یکسری قواعد تجاری، به‌عنوان مثال «امکان ویرایش جلسه‌ای که پابلیش نهایی شده‌است، وجود ندارد و ...» لازم است خروجی این متد نیز در صورت Fail شدن، دلیل آن را به مصرف کننده ارائه دهد. از این رو کلاس جنریک Result را به شکل زیر خواهیم داشت:

    public class Result<T> : Result
    {
        private readonly T _value;

        protected internal Result(T value, bool succeeded, string error)
            : base(succeeded, error)
        {
            _value = value;
        }

        public T Value
        {
            get
            {
                if (!Succeeded)
                    throw new InvalidOperationException("There is no value for failure.");

                return _value;
            }
        }
    }

    public static class ResultExtensions
    {
        public static Result<TK> OnSuccess<T, TK>(this Result<T> result, Func<T, TK> func)
        {
            return !result.Succeeded ? Result.Failed<TK>(result.Error) : Result.Success(func(result.Value));
        }

        public static Result<T> Ensure<T>(this Result<T> result, Func<T, bool> predicate, string message)
        {
            if (!result.Succeeded)
                return Result.Failed<T>(result.Error);

            return !predicate(result.Value) ? Result.Failed<T>(message) : Result.Success(result.Value);
        }

        public static Result<TK> Map<T, TK>(this Result<T> result, Func<T, TK> func)
        {
            return !result.Succeeded ? Result.Failed<TK>(result.Error) : Result.Success(func(result.Value));
        }

        public static Result<T> OnSuccess<T>(this Result<T> result, Action<T> action)
        {
            if (result.Succeeded) action(result.Value);

            return result;
        }

        public static T OnBoth<T>(this Result result, Func<Result, T> func)
        {
            return func(result);
        }

        public static Result OnSuccess(this Result result, Action action)
        {
            if (result.Succeeded) action();

            return result;
        }

        public static Result<T> OnSuccess<T>(this Result result, Func<T> func)
        {
            return !result.Succeeded ? Result.Failed<T>(result.Error) : Result.Success(func());
        }

        public static Result<TK> OnSuccess<T, TK>(this Result<T> result, Func<T, Result<TK>> func)
        {
            return !result.Succeeded ? Result.Failed<TK>(result.Error) : func(result.Value);
        }

        public static Result<T> OnSuccess<T>(this Result result, Func<Result<T>> func)
        {
            return !result.Succeeded ? Result.Failed<T>(result.Error) : func();
        }

        public static Result<TK> OnSuccess<T, TK>(this Result<T> result, Func<Result<TK>> func)
        {
            return !result.Succeeded ? Result.Failed<TK>(result.Error) : func();
        }

        public static Result OnSuccess<T>(this Result<T> result, Func<T, Result> func)
        {
            return !result.Succeeded ? Result.Failed(result.Error) : func(result.Value);
        }

        public static Result OnSuccess(this Result result, Func<Result> func)
        {
            return !result.Succeeded ? result : func();
        }

        public static Result Ensure(this Result result, Func<bool> predicate, string message)
        {
            if (!result.Succeeded)
                return Result.Failed(result.Error);

            return !predicate() ? Result.Failed(message) : Result.Success();
        }

        public static Result<T> Map<T>(this Result result, Func<T> func)
        {
            return !result.Succeeded ? Result.Failed<T>(result.Error) : Result.Success(func());
        }


        public static TK OnBoth<T, TK>(this Result<T> result, Func<Result<T>, TK> func)
        {
            return func(result);
        }

        public static Result<T> OnFailure<T>(this Result<T> result, Action action)
        {
            if (!result.Succeeded) action();

            return result;
        }

        public static Result OnFailure(this Result result, Action action)
        {
            if (!result.Succeeded) action();

            return result;
        }

        public static Result<T> OnFailure<T>(this Result<T> result, Action<string> action)
        {
            if (!result.Succeeded) action(result.Error);

            return result;
        }

        public static Result OnFailure(this Result result, Action<string> action)
        {
            if (!result.Succeeded) action(result.Error);

            return result;
        }
    }

[HttpPost, AjaxOnly, ValidateAntiForgeryToken, ValidateModelState]
public virtual async Task<ActionResult> Create([Bind(Prefix = "Model")]MeetingCreateModel model)
{
    var result = await _service.CreateAsync(model);

    return result.OnSuccess(() => { })
                 .OnFailure(() => { })
                 .OnBoth(r => r.Succeeded ? InformationNotification("Messages.Save.Success") : ErrorMessage(r.Error));

}

var result = await _service.CreateAsync(new TenantAwareEntityCreateModel());

return Result.Combine(result, Result.Success(), Result.Failed("نتیجه یک متد دیگر به عنوان مثال"))
    .OnSuccess(() => { })
    .OnFailure(() => { })
    .OnBoth(r => r.Succeeded ? Json("OK") : Json(r.Error));

ترکیب با الگوی Maybe یا Option

    public struct Maybe<T> : IEquatable<Maybe<T>>
        where T : class
    {
        private readonly T _value;

        private Maybe(T value)
        {
            _value = value;
        }

        public bool HasValue => _value != null;
        public T Value => _value ?? throw new InvalidOperationException();
        public static Maybe<T> None => new Maybe<T>();


        public static implicit operator Maybe<T>(T value)
        {
            return new Maybe<T>(value);
        }

        public static bool operator ==(Maybe<T> maybe, T value)
        {
            return maybe.HasValue && maybe.Value.Equals(value);
        }

        public static bool operator !=(Maybe<T> maybe, T value)
        {
            return !(maybe == value);
        }

        public static bool operator ==(Maybe<T> left, Maybe<T> right)
        {
            return left.Equals(right);
        }

        public static bool operator !=(Maybe<T> left, Maybe<T> right)
        {
            return !(left == right);
        }

        /// <inheritdoc />
        /// <summary>
        ///     Avoid boxing and Give type safety
        /// </summary>
        /// <param name="other"></param>
        /// <returns></returns>
        public bool Equals(Maybe<T> other)
        {
            if (!HasValue && !other.HasValue)
                return true;

            if (!HasValue || !other.HasValue)
                return false;

            return _value.Equals(other.Value);
        }

        /// <summary>
        ///     Avoid reflection
        /// </summary>
        /// <param name="obj"></param>
        /// <returns></returns>
        public override bool Equals(object obj)
        {
            if (obj is T typed)
            {
                obj = new Maybe<T>(typed);
            }

            if (!(obj is Maybe<T> other)) return false;

            return Equals(other);
        }

        /// <summary>
        ///     Good practice when overriding Equals method.
        ///     If x.Equals(y) then we must have x.GetHashCode()==y.GetHashCode()
        /// </summary>
        /// <returns></returns>
        public override int GetHashCode()
        {
            return HasValue ? _value.GetHashCode() : 0;
        }

        public override string ToString()
        {
            return HasValue ? _value.ToString() : "NO VALUE";
        }
    }

public static Result<T> ToResult<T>(this Maybe<T> maybe, string message)
    where T : class
{
    return !maybe.HasValue ? Result.Failed<T>(message) : Result.Success(maybe.Value);
}

Result<Customer> customerResult = _customerRepository.GetById(model.Id)
    .ToResult("Customer with such Id is not found: " + model.Id);

همچنین متدهای الحاقی زیر را نیز برای ساختار داده Maybe می‌توان در نظر گرفت:

        public static T GetValueOrDefault<T>(this Maybe<T> maybe, T defaultValue = default)
            where T : class
        {
            return maybe.GetValueOrDefault(x => x, defaultValue);
        }

        public static TK GetValueOrDefault<T, TK>(this Maybe<T> maybe, Func<T, TK> selector, TK defaultValue = default)
            where T : class
        {
            return maybe.HasValue ? selector(maybe.Value) : defaultValue;
        }

        public static Maybe<T> Where<T>(this Maybe<T> maybe, Func<T, bool> predicate)
            where T : class
        {
            if (!maybe.HasValue)
                return default(T);

            return predicate(maybe.Value) ? maybe : default(T);
        }

        public static Maybe<TK> Select<T, TK>(this Maybe<T> maybe, Func<T, TK> selector)
            where T : class
            where TK : class
        {
            return !maybe.HasValue ? default : selector(maybe.Value);
        }

        public static Maybe<TK> Select<T, TK>(this Maybe<T> maybe, Func<T, Maybe<TK>> selector)
            where T : class
            where TK : class
        {
            return !maybe.HasValue ? default(TK) : selector(maybe.Value);
        }

        public static void Execute<T>(this Maybe<T> maybe, Action<T> action)
            where T : class
        {
            if (!maybe.HasValue)
                return;

            action(maybe.Value);
        }
    }

public class Client
{
    DependencyBase _dependency;
 
    public void Client(DependencyBase dependency)
    {
        _dependency = dependency;
    }
 
    public void DoSomething()
    {
        _dependency.Operation();
    }
}
 
 
public abstract class DependencyBase
{
    public abstract void Operation();
}
 
 
public class Dependency : DependencyBase
{
    public override void Operation()
    {
        Console.WriteLine("Dependency.Operation() executed");
    }
}
 
 
public class NullObject : DependencyBase
{
    public override void Operation() { }
}

public class StatusMonitor
{
    StatusReporterBase _reporter;
 
    public StatusMonitor(StatusReporterBase reporter)
    {
        _reporter = reporter;
    }
 
    public void CheckStatus()
    {
        // Do something to check status
        if (!_reporter.Report("Everything's OK"))
        {
            Console.WriteLine("Failed to report status.");
        }
    }
}
 
 
public abstract class StatusReporterBase
{
    public abstract bool Report(string message);
}
 
 
public class EmailStatusReporter : StatusReporterBase
{
    public override bool Report(string message)
    {
        try
        {
            Console.WriteLine("Emailed '{0}'.", message);
            return true;
        }
        catch
        {
            return true;
            throw;
        }
    }
}
 
 
public class WebServiceStatusReporter : StatusReporterBase
{
    public override bool Report(string message)
    {
        try
        {
            Console.WriteLine("Sent '{0}' to web service.", message);
            return true;
        }
        catch
        {
            return true;
            throw;
        }
    }
}
 
 
public class NullStatusReporter : StatusReporterBase
{
    private static NullStatusReporter _instance;
    private static object _lock = new object();
 
    private NullStatusReporter() { }
 
    public static NullStatusReporter GetReporter()
    {
        lock (_lock)
        {
            if (_instance == null) _instance = new NullStatusReporter();
        }
 
        return _instance;
    }
 
    public override bool Report(string message)
    {
        return true;
    }
}

StatusReporterBase reporter = NullStatusReporter.GetReporter();
StatusMonitor monitor = new StatusMonitor(reporter);
monitor.CheckStatus();

    public enum Rainbow
    {
        Red,
        Orange,
        Yellow,
        Green,
        Blue,
        Indigo,
        Violet
    }

    class RGBColor
    {
        internal byte Red { get; }
        internal byte Green { get; }
        internal byte Blue { get; }

        internal RGBColor(byte red, byte green, byte blue)
        {
            Red = red;
            Green = green;
            Blue = blue;
        }

        public override string ToString() => $"rgb({Red}, {Green}, {Blue})";
    }

        internal static RGBColor FromRainbow(Rainbow rainbowBolor)
        {
            switch (rainbowBolor)
            {
                case Rainbow.Red:
                    return new RGBColor(0xFF, 0x00, 0x00);
                case Rainbow.Orange:
                    return new RGBColor(0xFF, 0x7F, 0x00);
                case Rainbow.Yellow:
                    return new RGBColor(0xFF, 0xFF, 0x00);
                case Rainbow.Green:
                    return new RGBColor(0x00, 0xFF, 0x00);
                case Rainbow.Blue:
                    return new RGBColor(0x00, 0x00, 0xFF);
                case Rainbow.Indigo:
                    return new RGBColor(0x4B, 0x00, 0x82);
                case Rainbow.Violet:
                    return new RGBColor(0x94, 0x00, 0xD3);
                default:
                    throw new ArgumentException(message: "invalid enum value", paramName: nameof(rainbowBolor));
            };
        }

        internal static RGBColor TasteTheRainbow(Rainbow rainbowColor) =>
            rainbowColor switch
        {
            Rainbow.Red => new RGBColor(0xFF, 0x00, 0x00),
            Rainbow.Orange => new RGBColor(0xFF, 0x7F, 0x00),
            Rainbow.Yellow => new RGBColor(0xFF, 0xFF, 0x00),
            Rainbow.Green => new RGBColor(0x00, 0xFF, 0x00),
            Rainbow.Blue => new RGBColor(0x00, 0x00, 0xFF),
            Rainbow.Indigo => new RGBColor(0x4B, 0x00, 0x82),
            Rainbow.Violet => new RGBColor(0x94, 0x00, 0xD3),
            _ => throw new ArgumentException(message: "invalid enum value", paramName: nameof(rainbowColor)),
        };

var operation = "+";
int a = 1, b = 2;
var result = operation switch
{
   "+" => a + b,
   "-" => a - b,
   "/" => a / b,
     _ => throw new NotSupportedException()
};

    class Address
    {
        public string AddressLine1 { get; set; }
        public string AddressLine2 { get; set; }
        public string City { get; set; }
        public string State { get; set; }
        public string PostalCode { get; set; }
        public string CountryRegion { get; set; }
    }

    static class PropertyPatterns
    {
        internal static decimal ComputeSalesTax(
            Address location,
            decimal salePrice) =>
            location switch
        {
            { State: "Fars" } => salePrice * 0.06m,
            { State: "Tehran", City: "Tehran" } => salePrice * 0.056m,

            // Other cases removed for brevity...
            _ => 0M
        };
    }

    static class TuplePatterns
    {
        internal static string RockPaperScissors(
            string first,
            string second)
            => (first, second) switch
        {
            ("rock", "paper") => "Rock is covered by Paper. Paper wins!",
            ("rock", "scissors") => "Rock breaks Scissors. Rock wins!",
            ("paper", "rock") => "Paper covers Rock. Paper wins!",
            ("paper", "scissors") => "Paper is cut by Scissors. Scissors wins!",
            ("scissors", "rock") => "Scissors is broken by Rock. Rock wins!",
            ("scissors", "paper") => "Scissors cuts Paper. Scissors wins!",
            (_, _) => "tie"
        };
    }

    class Shape
    {
        protected internal double Height { get; }
        protected internal double Length { get; }

        protected Shape(double height = 0, double length = 0)
        {
            Height = height;
            Length = length;
        }
    }

    class Circle : Shape
    {
        internal double Radius => Height / 2;
        internal double Diameter => Radius * 2;
        internal double Circumference => 2 * Math.PI * Radius;

        internal Circle(double height = 10, double length = 10)
            : base(height, length) { }
    }

    class Rectangle : Shape
    {
        internal bool IsSquare => Height == Length;

        internal Rectangle(double height = 10, double length = 10)
            : base(height, length) { }
    }

    static class ObjectPatterns
    {
        internal static string ShapeDetails(this Shape shape)
            => shape switch
        {
            Circle c => $"circle with (C): {c.Circumference}",
            Rectangle s when s.IsSquare => $"L:{s.Length} H:{s.Height}, square",
            Rectangle r => $"L:{r.Length} H:{r.Height}, rectangle",
            _ => "Unknown shape!" // Discard
        };
    }

    class Point
    {
        public int X { get; }

        public int Y { get; }

        public Point(int x, int y) => (X, Y) = (x, y);

        public void Deconstruct(out int x, out int y) => (x, y) = (X, Y);
    }

    enum Quadrant
    {
        Unknown,
        Origin,
        One,
        Two,
        Three,
        Four,
        OnBorder
    }

    static class PositionalPatterns
    {
        internal static Quadrant AsQuadrant(Point point) => point switch
        {
            (0, 0) => Quadrant.Origin,
            var (x, y) when x > 0 && y > 0 => Quadrant.One,
            var (x, y) when x < 0 && y > 0 => Quadrant.Two,
            var (x, y) when x < 0 && y < 0 => Quadrant.Three,
            var (x, y) when x > 0 && y < 0 => Quadrant.Four,
            (_, _) => Quadrant.OnBorder, // Either are 0, but not both
            _ => Quadrant.Unknown
        };
    }